Curious about the financial potential of leading an open-source software development community? While earnings can vary significantly, understanding the revenue streams and operational costs is key to unlocking substantial profits, potentially reaching six-figure annual incomes for successful ventures. Explore how to model these opportunities effectively by reviewing this comprehensive Open Source Software Community Financial Model.
Strategies to Increase Profit Margin
Enhancing profit margins is crucial for sustainable business growth and increased owner income. Implementing strategic adjustments in pricing, cost management, and operational efficiency can lead to significant improvements. The following table outlines key strategies and their potential impact on a business's financial performance.
| Strategy | Description | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Price Optimization | Adjusting product or service prices based on market demand, perceived value, and competitor analysis. | Potential increase of 5-15% in gross profit margin. |
| Cost Reduction | Identifying and minimizing operational expenses, such as overhead, material costs, or labor inefficiencies. | Potential reduction of 3-10% in cost of goods sold, increasing net profit margin. |
| Product/Service Diversification | Introducing higher-margin products or services to the existing portfolio. | Potential increase of 2-8% in overall profit margin, depending on new offering's success. |
| Improved Operational Efficiency | Streamlining processes, automating tasks, and reducing waste to lower per-unit costs. | Potential decrease of 2-7% in operating expenses, boosting net profit. |
| Customer Retention & Upselling | Focusing on retaining existing customers and encouraging them to purchase higher-value items or additional services. | Can increase customer lifetime value by 10-25%, indirectly improving profitability. |
How Much Open Source Software Development Community Owners Typically Make?
Owner earnings from open source software development communities vary widely. Some owners might earn very little, while others build highly profitable ventures. This significant difference often hinges on the chosen monetization strategy and the overall size and engagement of the community. For instance, individual maintainers of smaller projects might not see any direct income from their work. In contrast, companies that successfully build commercial offerings around popular open source projects can generate substantial open source software revenue, sometimes reaching millions of dollars annually.
Data highlights the disparity in developer compensation open source. A 2023 Tidelift survey revealed that a considerable 48% of maintainers reported earning nothing from their open source work. On the other hand, 17% earned more than $1,000 per month. This clearly illustrates the broad spectrum of owner earnings open source, with only a fraction of individuals achieving significant financial success in this space. Understanding how to approach monetizing open source projects is therefore critical for increasing potential income.
Established companies that leverage the open source business model profit demonstrate the higher end of earnings potential. Giants like HashiCorp and MongoDB, for example, have reported annual revenues in the hundreds of millions. These figures underscore the substantial financial returns possible when effective open source commercialization strategies are implemented, turning a community-driven project into a robust business. Such success often involves offering enterprise-grade support, premium features, or managed services, as discussed in the context of open source software community economics, for instance, in articles exploring profit potential of community-driven software development.
While it's difficult to pinpoint an exact average income for all open source project owners, particularly since many are contributors rather than formal owners, those who build successful commercial ventures can achieve significant earnings. Key individuals in these successful ventures can often see annual incomes exceeding $100,000. This income is frequently derived from sources such as service contracts, enterprise subscriptions, or consulting related to their projects, providing a sustainable income stream for open source founders.
Common Monetization Strategies for Open Source Projects
- Enterprise Support and Services: Offering paid support, consulting, or training for the open source software.
- Premium Features/SaaS: Developing proprietary add-ons or a Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) version of the open source core.
- Donations and Sponsorships: Receiving financial contributions from users, companies, or foundations.
- Dual Licensing: Offering the software under an open source license and a commercial license for those who don't want to adhere to open source terms.
- Marketplace: Creating a platform for third-party extensions or plugins that integrate with the open source project.
For individuals seeking to generate income, the path often involves building a project with a strong community and then identifying valuable services or products that the community or businesses using the software are willing to pay for. The question of how much do open source maintainers earn often depends on their ability to translate community engagement into revenue, which can be achieved through various revenue generation strategies for open source businesses. The potential for significant financial returns from building an open source community is real, but it requires strategic planning and execution of effective monetization options for open source communities.
Are Open Source Software Development Communities Profitable?
Yes, open source software development communities can be highly profitable. This profitability often stems from business models that leverage the community for product development, support, and distribution, rather than solely relying on direct software sales. For example, the open source business model profit is frequently derived from providing value-added services and support around the core free software.
Many successful companies demonstrate the lucrative nature of open source. Red Hat, acquired by IBM for $34 billion, is a prime example. Its revenue for fiscal year 2019 was $34 billion, predominantly generated through subscription services. This highlights that OSS project sustainability and significant financial returns are achievable through service, support, and subscription models, rather than direct licensing fees for the core open source code.
The open source software market is experiencing substantial growth, with projections indicating it will reach an estimated $60 billion by 2025. This robust market growth signals a fertile environment for various open source commercialization strategies. It also validates the potential for calculating profitability of open source ventures and understanding the financial returns from building an open source community.
Profitability in community-driven software economics often arises from adjacent services. These can include consulting, specialized training, offering premium features, or developing enterprise versions of the software. These diverse revenue generation strategies for open source businesses allow owners to monetize their projects effectively. For instance, an owner of an open source project might earn through offering enterprise support contracts or advanced analytics features, ensuring sustainable income streams for open source founders.
Common Revenue Streams for Open Source Projects
- Subscription Services: Offering ongoing access to updates, support, and premium features (e.g., Red Hat).
- Consulting and Professional Services: Providing expert advice, implementation, and customization for businesses using the software.
- Training and Certification: Educating users and developers on how to effectively use and contribute to the open source project.
- Enterprise Editions: Developing and selling enhanced versions of the software with added features tailored for large organizations.
- Donations and Sponsorships: Receiving financial support from individuals and companies who benefit from the project.
- Marketplace/Add-ons: Creating a platform for third-party developers to sell extensions or integrations for the core software.
The question of how much an individual can make from open source software varies greatly, but successful project owners can achieve substantial income. For example, some popular open source maintainers earn well into six figures annually through a combination of sponsorships, consulting, and paid support. This demonstrates that it is indeed possible for a single developer to earn a significant income from open source software development, provided they can build a strong community and implement effective monetization options for open source communities.
Estimating owner profit from open source initiatives requires careful consideration of the chosen business model. While the core software is often free, the value lies in the ecosystem built around it. The profit potential of community-driven software development is high when a clear strategy is in place to convert users into paying customers for these additional services. This path to financial independence with open source is achievable through strategic planning and consistent value delivery.
What Is Open Source Software Development Community Average Profit Margin?
The average profit margin for an Open Source Software Development Community business can vary significantly, largely depending on the specific monetization strategies and the business model employed. For models that are heavily reliant on services, such as support or custom development, profit margins might typically fall into the 10% to 20% range. This aligns with general averages seen in the professional services sector. These figures highlight how an individual can generate income from open source software through specialized expertise and client-focused offerings. Understanding these service-based returns is crucial for estimating owner earnings in this space.
Conversely, businesses that successfully leverage open source foundations into scalable software-as-a-service (SaaS) or premium product offerings can achieve substantially higher profit margins. For these more product-centric approaches, margins can range from over 20% to 30%. A prime example is GitLab, which utilizes a 'freemium' open source model. In Q4 2024, GitLab reported a gross profit margin of approximately 88%. It's important to note that while gross margins are high, net profitability can be lower due to substantial investments in research and development (R&D) and sales and marketing efforts, reflecting a common dynamic in software licensing revenue models.
Key Profitability Factors for Open Source Communities
- Business Model Variation: Profitability is directly tied to how the community's software is monetized, whether through services, premium features, or support.
- Scalability of Offerings: SaaS and productized services generally yield higher margins than pure service-based revenue streams.
- Investment in Growth: High R&D and sales/marketing spend can impact net profit margins, even with strong gross margins, as seen with companies like GitLab.
- Market Maturity: Established open core models, which build proprietary offerings around open source projects, can achieve net profit margins of 15% or more once they reach a stable, scaling phase.
When considering the profit potential of community-driven software development, it often mirrors that of proprietary software companies when open source projects are effectively monetized. This means that successful open source businesses, particularly those with a well-executed 'open core' strategy, can achieve healthy net profit margins, often in the range of 15% or higher once they are established and scaling effectively. This demonstrates the significant financial returns achievable from building and managing an open source community. For more insights into the financial aspects of such ventures, resources like those found at financialmodel.net can offer deeper analysis.
What Are The Common Revenue Streams For Open Source Software Development Communities?
Open source software development communities often generate revenue through several distinct models, allowing founders and maintainers to earn from their work. These models aim to provide sustainable income while keeping the core software accessible. Common streams include offering premium features, enterprise subscriptions, professional services like consulting and training, and cloud-hosted versions of the software. This diversified approach helps ensure the project's longevity and rewards contributors.
A highly adopted strategy is the 'open core' model. This involves offering a basic, free version of the software while charging for advanced features, enterprise-grade support, or specific integrations. Companies leveraging this model have seen significant success. For instance, MongoDB reported revenues of $17 billion in 2023, largely driven by its enterprise subscriptions and cloud services. Similarly, Confluent, a major contributor to Apache Kafka, generated $586 million in 2023, primarily through its cloud platform and enterprise offerings.
Service-based revenue is another crucial income source for open source projects, particularly for smaller communities or individual developers aiming for sustainable income streams. This can include offering paid support contracts, custom development to meet specific business needs, or providing in-depth training sessions. These services leverage the expertise built around the open source project, turning specialized knowledge into tangible financial returns for open source founders and their teams.
Beyond commercial offerings, other monetization options exist, though they typically yield lower financial returns compared to product-centric models. These include sponsorships from companies that benefit from the project, direct donations from users, or bug bounty programs where developers are rewarded for finding and fixing issues. Advertising within community platforms or marketplaces can also contribute to income. However, for substantial owner earnings from building an open source community, commercialization strategies are generally more effective.
Key Revenue Streams for Open Source Communities
- Premium Features (Open-Core Model): Offering a free basic version with paid advanced functionalities.
- Enterprise Subscriptions: Providing enhanced versions with dedicated support, security, and scalability for businesses.
- Professional Services: Generating income through consulting, custom development, and training related to the software.
- Cloud-Hosted Versions: Offering Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) versions of the open source project.
- Sponsorships and Donations: Receiving financial support from individuals or companies.
- Bounties: Payments for specific development tasks or bug fixes.
How Do Open Source Project Owners Get Paid?
Open source project owners can generate income through several distinct avenues, often combining multiple strategies to build a sustainable revenue stream. These methods allow founders and maintainers to earn a living while contributing to the open source ecosystem. Understanding these models is crucial for anyone looking to monetize their community-driven software development efforts.
Direct Income from Premium Features or Services
A common monetization strategy involves offering a core version of the open source software for free, while selling premium features, enhanced functionalities, or dedicated support packages. This approach, often termed the 'open core' model, allows businesses and individual users to benefit from the free software while providing a clear path for revenue generation. For example, a company might offer advanced analytics, enterprise-grade security features, or integration services as paid add-ons. This model taps into the value users derive from the software, converting them into paying customers for added benefits, aligning with strategies discussed in open source software community economics.
Salaries from Companies Supporting Open Source
Many individuals who lead or significantly contribute to popular open source projects are employed by companies that either heavily use or benefit from that software. These companies provide salaries to their employees to work on these projects, effectively paying them to advance the open source technology. This arrangement can range from full-time employment dedicated to a specific project to contributions made by developers whose companies see strategic value in the open source software's growth and stability. This is a primary way developer compensation is secured in the open source world, ensuring project sustainability.
Grants, Sponsorships, and Donations
Foundations and non-profit organizations frequently play a vital role in supporting open source development. These entities often secure grants from larger corporations, government bodies, or philanthropic organizations interested in fostering technological innovation. Individual project owners or smaller communities might also receive direct donations or sponsorships from users and companies who value their work. For instance, platforms like GitHub Sponsors or Open Collective facilitate direct financial contributions from the community. These funds can cover operational costs, infrastructure, and developer compensation, providing a crucial financial backbone for OSS project sustainability.
Common Revenue Streams for Open Source Projects
- Premium Features/Services: Selling enhanced functionalities or enterprise-grade support.
- Corporate Employment: Receiving a salary from a company that utilizes or contributes to the project.
- Grants and Sponsorships: Obtaining funding from foundations or corporate sponsors.
- Donations: Receiving direct financial support from community members and users.
- Consulting and Training: Offering expert advice, implementation, or educational services related to the software.
Consulting, Training, and Support Contracts
Individual developers or small teams can generate significant income by offering specialized services directly related to their open source projects. This includes providing expert consulting on how to implement, customize, or optimize the software for specific business needs. Training sessions, workshops, and dedicated support contracts are also lucrative avenues. For example, a developer might secure a contract worth tens of thousands of dollars with a company needing bespoke integration or ongoing maintenance for a critical open source component they maintain. This direct client engagement is a powerful way for individual maintainers to earn a substantial income, as highlighted in discussions about open source business model profit.
Owner Earnings from Community-Driven Software
The profit potential for an owner in a community-driven software development business varies widely. For individual developers, earnings can range from supplemental income to a full-time living wage, potentially reaching figures like $70,000 to $150,000+ annually through a combination of the methods above, depending on project popularity, demand for services, and effective monetization strategies. Larger, well-established projects with dedicated companies behind them can generate millions in revenue. For instance, companies like Red Hat, built around the Linux operating system, demonstrate the substantial financial returns possible. The average profit margin for open source businesses can be competitive, with many finding success by focusing on value-added services rather than direct software sales, as explored in relation to open source commercialization strategies.
How To Convert Open Source Users Into Paying Customers?
Converting users of free open source software into paying customers hinges on demonstrating clear, additional value that addresses specific business needs. The core strategy involves offering compelling premium versions of your software, often referred to as the 'open core' model. In this approach, the fundamental functionality remains freely available, fostering a broad user base and community. However, advanced features, enhanced scalability, robust security protocols, or specialized integrations are reserved for paid enterprise editions. This tiered offering provides a natural upgrade path for users who outgrow the free version or require more sophisticated capabilities for their business operations.
Providing comprehensive, tiered support is another critical element in converting open source users. While many users are comfortable with community forums for basic issues, businesses often prioritize reliability and direct assistance. Offering distinct support plans, ranging from community-level help to dedicated 24/7 enterprise support with guaranteed response times, caters to different customer segments. Businesses are frequently willing to pay for this assurance, understanding that timely, expert support can prevent costly downtime and streamline their operations. This commitment to service transforms a free tool into a dependable business solution, justifying the investment in paid support packages.
Offering managed cloud services built around your open source project presents a powerful monetization avenue. Many businesses prefer to offload the complexities of deployment, maintenance, and scaling. By providing a hosted, fully managed version of your software, you simplify adoption and ongoing usage. This service model abstracts away the technical overhead, allowing customers to focus on leveraging the software's benefits rather than managing its infrastructure. For the project maintainers, this creates a predictable revenue stream, fostering financial independence and enabling continued development of the core open source offering.
Key Strategies for Monetizing Open Source Users
- Open Core Model: Offer core features free, reserve advanced functionalities, scalability, or security in paid enterprise versions. This model encourages users needing more robust solutions to upgrade.
- Tiered Support Plans: Provide different levels of support, from community forums to premium 24/7 enterprise support. Businesses often pay for reliability and direct assistance.
- Managed Cloud Services: Develop and offer hosted, managed versions of the open source software. This simplifies deployment and maintenance for customers, creating a recurring revenue stream.
- Demonstrate ROI: Clearly articulate and prove the return on investment for commercial offerings. Highlight how paid features or support directly contribute to business efficiency, cost savings, or revenue generation.
What Are The Best Ways To Monetize An Open Source Project?
Monetizing an open source project, like the 'CodeCatalyst' community, often involves multiple revenue streams rather than relying on a single method. This diversification is key to sustainable income for project owners. Strategies typically center around adding value beyond the free core software. For instance, many successful projects offer commercial licenses for specific use cases, provide expert support, or develop premium features. These approaches cater to businesses needing more than just the basic code.
One highly effective monetization tactic is dual-licensing. This model allows the open source software to be freely used and distributed under an open-source license, often the GPL or similar. However, for businesses that wish to incorporate the software into their proprietary products without releasing their own source code, a commercial license is required. This strategy captures value from commercial entities while keeping the core project accessible to the community. For example, the popular database management system MySQL historically used dual licensing to generate significant revenue.
Providing professional support, training, and consulting services is another cornerstone for owner earnings in open source. Many companies rely on open source software but lack the in-house expertise to manage, customize, or troubleshoot it effectively. Offering dedicated support packages, paid training workshops, or custom development services directly addresses this need. This model generates income by selling expertise and reliability, which is a direct path to financial returns for project leaders. Red Hat, a pioneer in open source, built a substantial business primarily on enterprise support for its Linux operating system.
Key Open Source Monetization Strategies
- Dual-Licensing: Offer the software freely under an open-source license but require a commercial license for proprietary use, maximizing revenue from commercial applications.
- Support & Consulting: Provide paid technical support, maintenance, training, and custom development services to businesses needing expert assistance and reliability.
- Hosted/SaaS Versions: Develop and offer a cloud-hosted or Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) version of the open source software, typically on a subscription basis.
- Open Core Model: Build a proprietary 'open core' product where the core functionality is open source, but advanced features, management tools, or enterprise-grade capabilities are proprietary and sold via subscription or license.
Developing a hosted or SaaS version of the open source software is a powerful open source commercialization strategy. This leverages the community's innovation for the core product while capturing value through recurring subscription fees. Companies like GitLab have successfully adopted this model, offering a free community edition alongside paid SaaS and self-hosted enterprise tiers. This approach allows for continuous innovation driven by the community while providing a clear, scalable revenue stream for the business owner, ensuring OSS project sustainability.
Maximizing Revenue Through Enterprise Support And Services For Open Source Software Development Communities?
To generate significant owner earnings from an open source software development community like CodeCatalyst, a primary strategy involves offering robust enterprise support and specialized services. This approach directly addresses the needs of businesses that rely on open source solutions but require a higher level of assurance and assistance than community-provided support typically offers. By providing tiered support plans, companies can cater to different business needs, ensuring that clients receive guaranteed uptime, rapid bug fixes, and direct access to expert developers. These service contracts can become a substantial revenue stream, transforming free software into a commercially viable product.
Companies are often willing to invest in premium support for open source software because it mitigates risks associated with running critical operations on community-driven projects. For instance, a small or medium-sized business might pay $5,000 to $50,000 annually for enterprise-level support, depending on the complexity of the software and the service level agreement (SLA). This income is crucial for the sustainability of the open source project itself, funding further development and compensating core contributors. Offering these services is a proven method for monetizing open source projects, ensuring financial returns for the project owners and maintaining the project's health.
Key Revenue-Generating Services for Open Source Communities
- Tiered Support Plans: Offer different levels of support, such as basic, premium, and enterprise, with varying response times and access to experts. For example, an enterprise plan might guarantee a 4-hour response time for critical issues.
- Specialized Consulting: Provide expert advice on implementing, configuring, and optimizing the open source software within a client's specific infrastructure. This can include architecture reviews and performance tuning.
- Custom Development: Undertake bespoke feature development or integration work tailored to the unique requirements of individual businesses. This allows clients to extend the functionality of the open source software to meet their exact needs.
- Training and Certification: Develop and deliver training programs and certifications for the open source software. This not only creates an additional income source but also builds a skilled user base, enhancing the software's adoption and value proposition for businesses.
Expanding the reach of services through strategic partnerships is another effective way to increase open source community income. Collaborating with system integrators and cloud providers allows the open source business to tap into new markets and customer bases. These partners can bundle the open source software and its associated support services with their own offerings, creating comprehensive solutions for clients. For example, a cloud provider might offer a managed service for an open source database, generating revenue through service fees that are shared with the original project maintainers. This indirect monetization strategy can significantly boost profit potential for community-driven software development.
Boosting Profitability By Developing Premium Features Or An Open Core Model For Open Source Software Development Communities?
Monetizing open source projects often involves a strategic approach like the open core model. This method allows the core software to remain freely available, encouraging broad adoption and community contributions. Simultaneously, it creates commercial value by offering enhanced, proprietary features as premium or enterprise versions. This dual strategy is key for sustainable income streams for open source founders and contributes significantly to owner earnings open source.
Developing premium features means identifying functionalities that businesses require for professional use but aren't critical for the general open source community. These could include advanced security protocols, robust analytics, integration capabilities with other business software, or dedicated support services. By offering these valuable additions, businesses are incentivized to pay, directly supporting the open source software revenue and the project's development.
Key Strategies for Monetizing Open Source Projects
- Identify Business-Critical Features: Focus on functionalities that solve specific business problems, such as enhanced scalability for large enterprises, advanced reporting, or compliance tools.
- Develop an Open Core Strategy: Keep the foundational software open and free, while offering premium features like enterprise-grade security, management dashboards, or specialized integrations in a paid tier. This is a common open source business model profit driver.
- Offer Support and Services: Provide paid professional support, training, and consulting services. This is a direct way to generate open source community income and support developer compensation open source.
- Build a Strong Community: A vibrant community not only contributes code but also acts as a testing ground and marketing force, increasing the appeal of both free and paid offerings.
Successful open source commercialization strategies often leverage this model. For instance, database companies frequently offer enterprise editions with features like advanced clustering, data encryption, or performance tuning tools. These paid versions cater to businesses needing higher levels of reliability and functionality than the standard open source release. This approach demonstrates a clear path to generating significant open source revenue and ensuring OSS project sustainability.
By continuously innovating and adding value to these premium offerings, open source communities can effectively convert a larger portion of their user base into paying customers. This conversion is vital for increasing owner profit from open source initiatives and building sustainable income streams. It ensures that the project can continue to evolve and provide value, making it possible for a single developer or a small team to earn a substantial income from open source development and achieve financial returns from building an open source community.
Ensuring Long-Term Sustainability Through Strategic Partnerships And Funding For Open Source Software Development Communities?
For an open source software development community like CodeCatalyst, achieving long-term sustainability often hinges on building robust strategic partnerships and securing diverse funding streams. This approach moves beyond relying solely on direct sales or donations. Collaborating with established industry players can unlock significant financial and developmental advantages, ensuring the community's continued growth and impact.
Collaborating with Key Industry Players for Stable Funding
Strategic partnerships are crucial for the financial health of open source communities. These alliances can take many forms, from joint development projects to co-marketing initiatives. For instance, companies that heavily utilize open source software often seek deeper integration and support, creating opportunities for sponsorship. These partnerships can lead to shared revenue models or dedicated funding for core development, directly impacting owner earnings and the overall project's financial viability. A well-structured partnership can provide predictable revenue, which is essential for long-term planning and developer compensation within the OSS project.
Securing Corporate Sponsorships for Growth
Actively seeking corporate sponsorships from companies that benefit from the open source project can be a primary driver of owner earnings and project sustainability. Businesses that integrate the software into their products or services have a vested interest in its ongoing development and stability. These sponsorships can manifest as direct financial contributions, funding for specific features, or even dedicated developer hours. For example, a major cloud provider might sponsor a popular database project to ensure its performance and compatibility within their ecosystem. This indirect funding model is a common way open source maintainers generate income, allowing them to focus on community building and innovation rather than immediate sales.
Exploring Grant Opportunities for Non-Dilutive Funding
Exploring grant opportunities from foundations, government programs, or technology initiatives provides a valuable source of non-dilutive funding. These grants are often awarded to projects that demonstrate significant societal or technological impact, aligning with the goals of organizations supporting open source development. For CodeCatalyst, securing grants could fund critical infrastructure, research, or community outreach programs. This type of funding allows for continued innovation and operational stability without requiring the business to cede equity or immediately generate profit. Organizations like the Linux Foundation or the Apache Software Foundation frequently offer or facilitate such opportunities, contributing to OSS project sustainability.
Types of Strategic Partnerships for Open Source Communities
- Cloud Providers: Partnering with companies like AWS, Google Cloud, or Microsoft Azure can lead to optimized deployments, joint marketing, and potential revenue sharing on managed services built around the open source project.
- Hardware Vendors: Collaborations with hardware manufacturers can ensure the software is optimized for specific devices, leading to bundled offerings or dedicated support contracts.
- Other Software Companies: Integrating with complementary software solutions or co-developing new features with non-competing companies can expand the user base and create new monetization avenues.
- Enterprise Users: Direct support and service contracts with large enterprises that rely heavily on the open source project can provide substantial, recurring income.
Monetizing Open Source Projects Through Value-Added Services
While the core open source software remains free, owners can generate revenue by offering value-added services and commercial support. This is a key aspect of open source commercialization strategies. Companies often pay for enterprise-grade features, dedicated support channels, training, or consulting services that enhance their use of the software. For CodeCatalyst, this could mean offering premium support packages, custom development services, or specialized security audits. These revenue streams are critical for funding the core development team and ensuring the project's long-term viability, answering the question of how much do open source maintainers earn through these indirect means.